A bibliographic journey through Madagascar

abashusen 1987Abas, Husen. 1987. Indonesian, a unifying language of wider communication: A historical and sociolinguistic perspective. Pacific linguistics. Series D. Special publications 73. Canberra: Australian National University, Dept of Linguistics: Research School of Pacific Studies.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Austronesian linguistics,

Austronesian,

alexandrepierre 1968Alexandre, Pierre. 1968. Some linguistic problems of nation-building in Negro Africa. In Language problems of developing nations, 119-127, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Indian Ocean region,

History,

Anthropology and ethnology,

andriambohitra 1994Andriambohitra. 1994. Enseigner en français ou en malgache? Recherches et Documents 17:6-20.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

appelrene&muyskenpieter 1987Appel, René, and Pieter Muysken. 1987. Language contact and bilingualism. London: Edward Arnold.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

armstrongrobertg 1968Armstrong, Robert G. 1968. Language policies and language practices in west Africa. In Language problems of developing nations, 227-236, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

bamgboseayo 1991Bamgbose, Ayo. 1991. Language and the nation: The language question in sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

bemananjarazefaniasyrafaralahy 1977Bemananjara, Zefaniasy Rafaralahy. 1977. Tatitra ankapobeny momba ny asam-pikarohana ao amin'ny ILA (Considérations d'ensemble sur les recherches effectuées à l'Institut de Linguistique Appliquée). Report, Institut de Linguistique Appliquée. Antananarivo.

language(s):

Malagasy, French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

bemananjarazefaniasyrafaralahy 1979bBemananjara, Zefaniasy Rafaralahy. 1979b. Situation de l'enseignement du français à Madagascar. In Le français hors de France, 527-542, edited by Albert Valdman. Paris: Champion.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Social sciences - other,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

berghepierrelvanden 1968Berghe, Pierre L. van den. 1968. Language and "nationalism" in south Africa. In Language problems of developing nations, 215-224, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

beukesannemarie 1991Beukes, Anne-Marie. 1991. Language teaching and politics of language. Journal for Language Teaching 25(4):89-100.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

In this article the author focuses on the relationship between language policy and language teaching in South Africa. She describes the linguistic situation in S.A. as well as the inequalities. The problem of "linguicism" is defined on p. 93 and is seen as of the same nature as racism, classism, sexism and ageism. Although it was given a fairly general title, the article focuses on Afrikaans and English in S.A.

blanchaim 1968Blanc, Haim. 1968. The Israeli koine as an emergent national standard. In Language problems of developing nations, 237-251, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

boulangerjeanclaude 1989Boulanger, Jean-Claude. 1989. Développement, aménagement linguistique et terminologie: Un mythe? L'exemple de la malgachisation. Language Problems and Language Planning 13(3):233-263.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This article stresses the importance of terminology when language policies are applied and draws a subtle comparison between Québec and Madagascar. In the case of Québec, it was possible to draw on a language that already had the necessary technological terminology in place, whereas in Madagascar, there is still a need to develop such terminology. He refers to malgachophonisation that is a prerequisite for malgachisation. Having waded several times through the sticky, somewhat obscurifying vocabulary of this article, I can't say that I disagree with as much as I've understood.

bowersjohn 1968Bowers, John. 1968. Language problems and literacy. In Language problems of developing nations, 381-401, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

bryeannelizabeth 1992Brye, Ann Elizabeth. 1992. Promoting language standardization on the local level in Cameroon. Notes on Scripture in Use and Language Programs 32:19-41.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

calvetlouisjean 1977Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1977. Marxisme et linguistique. Paris: Payot.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

calvetlouisjean 1987Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1987. La guerre des langues et les politiques linguistiques. Paris: Payot.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

calvetlouisjean 1989Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1989. Etat des lieux, état des langues. Afrique : cohabitations. Le Français dans le monde. Diagonales 10:26-28.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

calvetlouisjean 1994Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1994. Les politiques de diffusion des langues en Afrique francophone. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 107:67-76.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Gives the history of "francophonie" as a concept and describes the "Plan d'aménagement linguistique de la Francophonie." Madagascar was absent from the 1989 meeting in Dakar, where leaders of francophone states met. The FIDELCA was given a budget of 3,000,000 FF in 1990 to develop African Language Studies, help research and work towards a dialogue of cultures.

cartwrightdon 1987Cartwright, Don. 1987. Accommodation among the anglophone minority in Quebec to official language policy: A shift in traditional patterns of language contact. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 8(1-2):187-212.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

clignetremi&ernstbernard 1995Clignet, Rémi, and Bernard Ernst. 1995. L'école à Madagascar: Evaluation de la qualité de l'enseignement primaire public. Paris: Editions Karthala.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Dialectology,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Social sciences - other,

History,

Austronesian,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

Excellent study which contains a discussion of language in Malagasy education that is very relevant to our study.

cloonanjeannedenise&strinejamesmichael 1991Cloonan, Jeanne Denise, and James Michael Strine. 1991. Federalism and the development of language policy: Preliminary investigations. Language Problems and Language Planning 15(3):268-281.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

cluveraugustddev 1991Cluver, August D. de V. 1991. A systems approach to language planning: The case of Namibia. Language Problems and Language Planning 15(1):43-64.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

This article examines the Namibian experience of language planning: after independence, English was to become the new national language, while spoken by only 5% of the population, with Afrikaans being the main lingua franca and German, plus 18 indigenous languages being used. Professor Cluver sets some guidelines for the language plan of the new government, so that previous mistakes would not be repeated.

dahloeyvind 1993aDahl, Øyvind (ed.) 1993a. Language. A doorway between human cultures. Tributes to Dr. Otto Chr. Dahl on his ninetieth birthday. Oslo: Novus Forlag.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Missiology,

Religion,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Diachronic linguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

History,

Austronesian,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This collection of papers contains some pertinent information on the work of Otto Chr Dahl, as well as on aspects of Malagasy archaeology, history and linguistics (nine out of the total of sixteen). Particularly of interest to us in the context of this survey are the articles by Claude Allibert, and Pierre Vérin (Linguistique, archéologie et l'exploration du passé malgache), by Dina Jeanne (Les débuts de l'évangélisation du Fihereña par les Luthériens Norvégiens 1874-1897), as well the paper by Roger-Bruno Rabenilaina (L'Intégration des différents parlers, signes manifestes de l'unicité de la langue malgache).

dasguptajyotirindra&gumperzjohnj 1968Das Gupta, Jyotirindra, and John J. Gumperz. 1968. Language, communication and control in north India. In Language problems of developing nations, 151-166, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

dasguptajyotirindra 1968Das Gupta, Jyotirindra. 1968. Language diversity and national development. In Language problems of developing nations, 17-26, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

dasguptajyotirindra 1971Das Gupta, Jyotirindra. 1971. Religion, language, and political mobilization. In Can language be planned?, 53-61, edited by Joan Rubin, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

dezjacques 1991Dez, Jacques. 1991. La linguistique malgache. Bref aperçu historique. Archives et documents: Société d'histoire et d'épistémologie des sciences du langage (SHESL) 2(5). Paris: Université de Paris 7.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

Professor Dez introduces his historical overview with a short but excellent description of the Malagasy language. He then traces the development of Malagasy linguistics from the beginning of European contact with Madagascar in the 1600's until today, distinguishing in its development four different periods, namely:
First: from 1500's till 1820: the discovery;
Second: 1820-1900: forming years of traditional grammar; beginning of the first Malagasy linguistics;
Third: 1900-1970: traditional grammar rules;
Fourth: since 1970, the period of the second Malagasy linguistics; traditional grammar rejected.
Dez describes each of these four periods, supported with a brief mention of authors and their contributions during each. This brief analysis of the state of Malagasy linguistics until 1991 provides the reader with clear insights and a good overview of the situation.

dilanwars 1972Dil, Anwar S. (ed.) 1972. The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

djitepauling 1990aDjité, Paulin G. 1990a. Les langues Africaines dans la nouvelle francophonie. Language Problems and Language Planning 14(1):20-32.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Discusses the problems of the idea of "francophonie" in the context of multilingual developing countries in Africa. French seems to be in regression everywhere and the way to address this problem would be according to Djité, by addressing the problem of the prestige of French and the credibility of the "francophonie" movement.

Selected quotes:

• Il n'est pas absolument requis pour les besoins de l'unité et de la démocratie que les citoyens d'un pays parlent tous une seule et même langue, et qu'en plus, cette langue leur soit étrangère.

djitepauling 1990bDjité, Paulin G. 1990b. The place of African languages in the revival of the francophonie movement. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 86:87-102.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

In this article, the author looks at the conflicting issues of the revival of Francophonie and the development of indigenous languages in Africa. He quotes many examples of the opposing interests of political elites and the ordinary people of a country. Full of irony, his article draws a realistic picture, with the benefit of hind-sight and of having escaped birth in the previous century.

djitepauling 1993Djité, Paulin G. 1993. Francophonie: Gain d'humanité ou perte d'identité? Language problems and language planning 17(3):254-264.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

While the habit to talk of Francophonie in terms of "gain d'humanité" or "perte d'identité" exists, Djité rejects this dichotomy and discusses four different definitions of Francophonie, namely:
1) la francophonie en tant qu'un rassemblement de pays unis par un héritage linguistique commun;
2) la francophonie en tant qu'une entreprise de coopération et de solidarité;
3) la francophonie en tant que mouvement linguistique ou culturel et,
4) la francophonie en tant que mouvement en défense des valeurs humanistes.
A remark that is worth noting here is that languages are not like religions of a mutually-exclusive nature. They can co-exist without threatening someone's mother tongue.

doriannancyc 1987Dorian, Nancy C. 1987. The value of language-maintenance efforts which are unlikely to succeed. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 68:57-67.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

A study of the dying Scottish Gaelic dialect of East Sutherland-north-east Scottish mainland, to determine whether language death can be reversed or stopped.

eastmancarolm 1990aEastman, Carol M. 1990a. Dissociation: A unified language-policy outcome for Kenya. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 86:69-85.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

"It is the purpose of this paper to explore one possibility for reconciling the outcomes of each approach in a way that would make sense for public language policy" (69). The two approaches are macro (game-theoretic) and micro (transaction-analytical). "Linguistic dissociation" is proposed, namely that which "decreases the domains in which non-indigenous languages have official sanction." A shift in state policy is suggested, namely a de-emphasis of the two non-indigenous official languages (Standard Swahili from Tanzania and English from Britain and the USA).

Selected quotes:

• An official language is one used in the business of government. A national language is of a political, social and cultural entity (71).

eastmancarolm 1990bEastman, Carol M. 1990b. What is the role of language planning in post-apartheid south Africa? TESOL Quarterly 24(1):9-21.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Some good definitions on language planning are given is this article. Eastman discusses the role of language planning in post-apartheid South Africa. She draws a distinction between sociolinguistics and political linguistics and shows the effect these two views have on language planning.

erringtonjjoseph 1992Errington, J. Joseph. 1992. On the ideology of Indonesian language development: The state of a language of state. Pragmatics 2(3):417-426.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Austronesian linguistics,

Austronesian,

Indonesian has become the language of 190 million people, since its beginnings 50 years ago as a "colonial intelligentsia's project." 400 or so distinct ethnic languages are spoken there as well. "As questions about Indonesian's viability fade anew, official rhetoric is arising about threats which the dynamic of national development now poses to Indonesia's ethnic languages and cultures" (417). This article considers the Javanese Language Congress "as a kind of diagnostic event which both embodied and also framed contemporary problems in the political culture of language in Indonesia" (417). Interesting parallels with Madagascar, e.g. "The motto formulated by that young group of intellectuals-one island, one race, one language-hardly rings hollow sixty-three years later" (418).

esoavelomandrosofaranirinav 1976Esoavelomandroso, Faranirina V. 1976. Langue, culture et civilisation à Madagascar: Malgache et français dans l'enseignement officiel (1916-1940). Omaly sy Anio (Hier et Aujourd'hui) 3-4:105-155.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Social sciences - other,

Austronesian,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

fergusoncharlesa 1968aFerguson, Charles A. 1968a. Language development. In Language problems of developing nations, 27-35, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Selected quotes:

• (.) the use of writing adds another variety of language to the community's repertory. The vocabulary, grammatical structure, and even the phonological structure of the language as used in writing begin immediately, as it were, to have a life of their own. Linguists like to point out that speech is primary and writing secondary and that written language is always in some sense a representation of speech. Although this is true in a general way, (.)the fact is that writing almost never reflects speech in an exact way, written language frequently develops characteristics not found in the corresponding spoken language, and it may change along lines quite different from changes in the spoken language. After the spread of writing, varieties of the spoken language can no longer be described in vacuo; they will interact with the written form to a greater or a lesser degree, and the linguistic analyst must note spelling pronunciations, lexical displacements, and grammatical fluctuations which originate in or are reinforced by written usage.
  It is remarkable that communities, as they begin the regular use of writing, generally do not feel that ordinary, everyday speech is appropriate for written use (29).
• Sometimes this may be because the community already makes use of a classical language, but sometimes it merely transfers to the new medium some of the attitudes already present in the community toward the language of higher levels of discourse such as formal speeches, religious rituals, and the like. It may be assumed that all speech communities show linguistic differentiation along a casual/non-casual dimension (Voegelin 1960), and many communities will regard the new use of writing as far along the noncasual end, only much later coming to recognize the value of written representation of casual speech (.).
  It is sometimes asserted that the existence of a written variety inhibits language change, thus constituting an important influence for uniformity through time comparable to the kind of regional and social uniformity implicit in standardization (.).
  The second point to be made is that the use of writing leads to the folk belief that the written language is the "real" language and speech is a corruption of it. This attitude seems to be nearly universal in communities which have attained the regular use of writing. It is only the occasional perceptive observer, or in more recent times the professional linguist, who sees the relationship in other terms. To the extent that after the passage of time the written form of the language seems to be the more conservative (.).
  The importance of this folk belief for language development lies in the way it limits the kind of conscious intervention in the form of language planning that the community will conceive of or accept (30).

fergusoncharlesa 1968bFerguson, Charles A. 1968b. St Stefan of perm and applied linguistics. In Language problems of developing nations, 253-265, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Missiology,

Religion,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

History,

Anthropology and ethnology,

fishmanjoshuaa&dasguptajyotirindra&fergusoncharlesa 1968Fishman, Joshua A., Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson (eds.) 1968. Language problems of developing nations. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

A very comprehensive collection of papers on most relevant aspects of language planning issues in the first post-colonial decades.

fishmanjoshuaa&dasguptajyotirindra&jernuddbjoernh&rubinjoan 1971Fishman, Joshua A., Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Bjørn H. Jernudd, and Joan Rubin. 1971. Research outline for comparative studies of language planning. In Can language be planned?, 293-305, edited by Joan Rubin, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

This paper suggests, in a practical way, some possible research in the field of language planning.

fishmanjoshuaa 1968aFishman, Joshua A. 1968a. Language problems and types of political and sociocultural integration: A conceptual summary. In Language problems of developing nations, 491-498, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

fishmanjoshuaa 1968bFishman, Joshua A. 1968b. Nationality-nationalism and nation-nationism. In Language problems of developing nations, 39-51, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Selected quotes:

• Thus the sociocultural nationality and the politico-geographic nation are rarely in phase with each other (42).
• There are both direct and indirect ties between language and nationism as well as between language and nationalism (43).
• It is nationalism that views self-identity, group-identity, and self-identity through group-identity as impossible (unthinkable) without a particular language rather than merely without a common language. For nationism, language questions are initially not questions of authenticity (identity) but of efficiency (cohesion) (44).
• Linguists recognise language differences (whether in phonology, morphology, or syntax) that millions of native speakers consciously or unconsciously ignore (44).
• Wolff claims that mutual intelligibility is largely a function of intergroup attitudes (44).
• Differences do not need to be divisive. Divisiveness is an ideologised position and it can magnify major differences; indeed it can manufacture differences in languages as in other matters almost as easily as it can capitalize on more obvious differences. Similarly, unification is also an ideologized position and it can minimize seemingly major differences or ignore them entirely, whether these be in the realm of language, religion, culture, race, or any other basis of differentiation (45).

fishmanjoshuaa 1968eFishman, Joshua A. 1968e. Sociolinguistics and the language problems of developing countries. In Language problems of developing nations, 3-16, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

This article may be a few decades old, but the issues raised are still relevant.

Selected quotes:

• Thus language may and has become a symbol of supralocal ethnic-cultural identification at the nationality level (therefore: nationalism), just as it may and has become a symbol of contranational ethnic-cultural identification on the part of smaller groups who, resisting fusion into the larger nationality, develop a localized nationality consciousness of their own (Haugen 1959) (6).
• Thus the ideologization of languages, which enables them to display desired roles in symbolic mobilization and unification, also leads to the development of these languages per se into fitting instruments of government, technology and High Culture (7).
• The need for a broader ethnic-cultural unity may well point to the long-term espousal of a given language as the national language. Nevertheless, the immediate operational needs of the country may well necessitate the short-term recognition of another or of multiple languages, which leads away from the long-range goal of creating a new, supralocal authenticity. Thus some nations have hit upon the expediency of recognizing several local languages as permissable for early education (i.e. grades one to three or even six), whereas the preferred national language is retained for intermediate education and a nonindigenous language of international significance is retained (at least temporarily) for governmental activity and higher education. If such a pattern promotes or retains sufficient stability, language policies can subsequently be set in motion to continually develop the preferred language, enabling it to successively displace the language of wider communication above it and, eventually, the languages of narrower communication below it (7).
• (.)not only are the new nations beset by problems that are clearly language-related, but the earliest stages of these problems are the most fleeting and the ones most difficult to reconstruct by means of archival or laboratory analysis.
  Languages undergo development when their functions undergo real or anticipatory expansion as a result of the expanded role repertories (once more, real or anticipatory) of those for whom these languages have become too symbolic of group membership and of group goals to be easily displaced. Such expansion and symbolic elaboration of language functions has, in recent years, occurred most frequently in developing nations.
  Both nationism and nationalism are concerned with language choice (selection) but in quite different ways. For the nationalist, language represents the continuity of a Great Tradition with all of its symbolic elaborations in terms of ideologized values and goals. Language selection therefore represents a triumph over other, purportedly lesser traditions and goals. Nationalisms do not need to ponder language choice, since each nationalism is seemingly irrevocably and seemingly naturally committed in this connection. Thus nationalisms pursue language reinforcement and maintenance rather than selection per se. For the nationist, however, language choice is a matter of calculated effectiveness, of communicational ease, of operational efficiency (Fishman, 1966b) (9).
• A study of the social component of developing languages requires more than linguistic sophistication embellished by societal curiosity or sensitivity. It requires thorough familiarity with theories of social change and social innovation and social research methodology (11).
• (.) language problems of disadvantaged speakers of nonstandard varieties represents another area of growing interaction with sociolinguistics (.). Some of these varieties have already been found to command intragroup moyalty so that the impediments between them and the activization of more standard varieties are not only structural but functional as well and fully ideologized to boot (.). In general, the problems of disadvantaged populations might helpfully be seen in broader perspective if they were considered against a background of coterritorial language differences more generally and of planned language shift in particular (12).

fishmanjoshuaa 1971bFishman, Joshua A. 1971b. The impact of nationalism on language planning. In Can language be planned?, 3-20, edited by Joan Rubin, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

fishmanjoshuaa 1972Fishman, Joshua A. 1972. Language and ethnicity in minority sociolinguistic perspective. Multilingual matters 45. Clevedon, Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

fishmanjoshuaa 1998Fishman, Joshua A. 1998. Language and ethnicity: The view from within. In The handbook of sociolinguistics. Blackwell handbooks in linguistics 4, edited by Florian Coulmas. Oxford: Blackwell.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

Anthropology and ethnology,

fishmanjoshuaa 1999Fishman, Joshua A. 1999. The new linguistic order. Foreign Policy 113:26-40.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

fishmanjoshuaa 2000bFishman, Joshua A. 2000b. English: The killer language? Whole Earth 100:13-15.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

gallaghercharlesf 1980Gallagher, Charles F. 1980. North African problems and prospects: Language and identity. Language Problems and Language Planning 4(1):129-150.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

grilloralph 1989aGrillo, Ralph. 1989a. Anthropology, language, politics. In Social anthropology and the politics of language. The sociological review 36, 1-24, edited by Ralph Grillo. London and New York: Routledge.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

grilloralph 1989bGrillo, Ralph (ed.) 1989b. Social anthropology and the politics of language. The sociological review 36. London and New York: Routledge.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Selected quotes:

• In their different ways, linguistic anthropologists, 'sociolinguists' (such as Labov in the United States and Trudgill in Britain) and 'sociologists of language' (outstandingly Fishman and Haugen) have each helped rescue language from the transformationalists (3).

gueuniernicole 1992Gueunier, Nicole. 1992. Le français langue d'Afrique. Présence Francophone 40.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

haarmanharald 1990Haarman, Harald. 1990. Language planning in the light of a general theory of language: A methodological framework. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 86:103-126.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

Outlines the functional ranges of language planning and the methodological implications necessary for theory making, etc. Three elementary ranges of language-planning activities have to be distinguished, (1) corpus planning (2) status planning and (3) prestige planning. Interesting article for a basic theory of language planning, especially concerning demographic factors (p.109). Excellent outlines.

Selected quotes:

• As one of its subdivision, language planning is of great significance to sociolinguistics, but so far its theoretical foundation is only poorly developed (.) (103).
• In language planning, all activities which are directed at the structure of a language (I.e. its corpus) and at its status appear in the light of prestige values which form a network of evaluations and attitudes (105).

halekennethl&craigc&englandn&kraussm&masayesvajeannel&watahomigiel&yamamotoa 1992Hale, Kenneth L., C. Craig, N. England, M. Krauss, Jeanne L. Masayesva, L. Watahomigie, and A. Yamamoto. 1992. Endangered languages. Journal of the Linguistic Society of America 68(1):1-42.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

An excellent motivating article on endangered languages and the "rescue" of such.

harrieslyndon 1968Harries, Lyndon. 1968. Swahili in modern east Africa. In Language problems of developing nations, 415-429, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Swahili,

Indian Ocean region,

haugeneinar 1968Haugen, Einar. 1968. The Scandinavian languages as cultural artifacts. In Language problems of developing nations, 267-284, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Missiology,

Religion,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Diachronic linguistics,

Applied linguistics,

History,

Anthropology and ethnology,

haugeneinar 1972bHaugen, Einar. 1972b. Construction and reconstruction in language planning: Ivar Aasen's grammar. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 191-214, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

haugeneinar 1972cHaugen, Einar. 1972c. Dialect, language, nation. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 237-254, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Dialectology,

Sociolinguistics,

Haugen clarifies the terms " language" and "dialect" in terms of their history, the first entering the English language from French which had it from the Latin "lingua" in the twelfth century. "Dialect" was a loanword from Greek since the Renaissance. Greece knew no unified norm during classical times and referred to the closely related and written regional forms, each one with a specialized literary use descended from a previous common Greek usage. Subsequently "Greek" was to refer to a convergence of these dialects, the Greek koiné. The Greek situation became the model for all later usage of the terms "language" and "dialect." The term "language" comprises the idea of the result of historical convergence of dialects, which in its turn could be the result of divergence from a common language. French added the term "patois" to indicate "degraded dialects," but in English the term "dialect" has had to carry every sense.
Some of the confusion with the two terms stem from the fact that it is sometimes used in "structural" sense, (i.e. descriptive of the language itself) and at other times in a "functional" sense, that is, in terms of the social uses in communication.

haugeneinar 1972eHaugen, Einar. 1972e. Language planning in modern Norway. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 133-147, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

haugeneinar 1972fHaugen, Einar. 1972f. Language planning, theory and practice. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 287-298, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

haugeneinar 1972hHaugen, Einar. 1972h. Linguistics and language planning. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 159-190, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

haugeneinar 1972iHaugen, Einar. 1972i. National and international languages. In The ecology of language. Essays by Einar Haugen. Language science and national development series, linguistic research group of Pakistan, 255-264, edited by Anwar S. Dil. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

horvathbarbaram&vaughanpaul 1991Horvath, Barbara M., and Paul Vaughan. 1991. Community languages: A handbook. Multilingual matters 67. Clevedon, Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

The chapter on sociolinguistic profiles represents very relevant reading for sociolinguistic surveyors in that the author gives clear and succinct definitions of different sociolinguistic profiles that are found in language/speech communities. The term "community languages" is the Australian term for what the Canadians call "heritage languages," replacing terms like "migrant" language or "foreign" language, indicating a shift from assimilationist to multiculturalist attitudes on the part of language politicians.

jahrernsthaakon 1993Jahr, Ernst Håkon (ed.) 1993. Language conflict and language planning. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

jernuddbjoernh 1968Jernudd, Bjørn H. 1968. Linguistic integration and national development: A case study of the Jebel Marra area, Sudan. In Language problems of developing nations, 167-181, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

jonessarasu 1993Jones, Sara Su. 1993. Power of Babel: Struggle to balance linguistic unity and diversity. Harvard International Review 15(4):46-51.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

josephjohne&taylortalbotj 1990Joseph, John E., and Talbot J. Taylor (eds.) 1990. Ideologies of language. Routledge politics of language series. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

kaplanrobert 2002Kaplan, Robert. 2002. The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

klossheinz 1968Kloss, Heinz. 1968. Notes concerning a language-nation typology. In Language problems of developing nations, 69-85, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

laponceja 1987Laponce, J. A. 1987. Languages and their territories. Translation and new ed of "langue et territoire". Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Dialectology,

Sociolinguistics,

Selected quotes:

• (.) the modern state (.) is 'glossophagic' (Calvet 1974)-destructive of its minority language (4).

legersylvie 1996Léger, Sylvie. 1996. Vers un agenda linguistique: Regard futuriste sur les nations unies/ towards a language agenda: Futurist outlook on the united nations. Actes du deuxième colloque/ proceedings of the second conference, university of ottawa, 25-27 may 1995. Ottawa: Centre Canadien des droits linguistiques, Université d'Ottawa.

language(s):

French, English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

litteralrobert 1999aLitteral, Robert. 1999a. Four decades of language policy in Papua New Guinea: The move towards the vernacular. SIL Electronic Working Papers. SIL. First presented in absentia at the annual meeting of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea in June, 1995.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Research,

This paper gives an historical overview of a shift in language policy which took place in Papua New Guinea over four decades, starting with post-colonial trends, developing from centralised colonial to centralised national to decentralised to multilevel decision-making.

litteralrobert 1999bLitteral, Robert. 1999b. Language development in Papua New Guinea. SIL Electronic Working Papers. SIL. This paper, originally titled Language Development in Papua New Guinea, Cheaper by the hundreds, was first presented by Dr. Robert Litteral in 1993 as a special lecture sponsored by the Linguistics Department of the University of Texas at Arlington.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Research,

In this paper, Robert Litteral describes the case of PNG language policies where vernacular education in 250 out of 850 languages initially seemed viable and beneficial; and he presented a strong argument for mother tongue education (as well as a serious challenge for developing a national system). From the PNG experience, he re-evaluates some assumptions in sociolinguistics, in particular, those put forward by Fasold. As a case study, the PNG example points to potential solutions for multilingual nations.

macnamarajohn 1971Macnamara, John. 1971. Successes and failures in the movement for the restoration of Irish. In Can language be planned?, 65-94, edited by Joan Rubin, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

mazruialia 1968Mazrui, Ali A. 1968. Some sociopolitical functions of English literature in Africa. In Language problems of developing nations, 183-197, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

moelionoantonm 1986Moeliono, Anton M. 1986. Language development and cultivation: Alternative approache in language planning. Translated by Kay Ikranagara. Pacific linguistics. Series A: Occasional papers 30. Canberra: Australian National University, Dept of Linguistics: Research School of Pacific Studies.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

muehlhaeuslerpeter 1992aMühlhäusler, Peter. 1992a. Preserving languages or language ecologies? A top-down approach to language survival. Oceanic Linguistics 31(2):163-180.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

muehlhaeuslerpeter 1996bMühlhäusler, Peter. 1996b. Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region. London and New York: Routledge.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

myersscottoncarol 1996Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1996. One way to dusty death: The matrix language turnover hypothesis. In Language loss and community response, edited by Lenore Grenoble, and Lindsay Whaley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

nettledaniel 2000Nettle, Daniel. 2000. Linguistic fragmentation and the wealth of nations: The Fishman-pool hypothesis reexamined. Economic Development and Cultural Change 48(2):335-348.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

Selected quotes:

• The fact that two variables have co-evolved in no way implies that manipulating one will affect the other in the desired direction (345).
• Furthermore, there is little evidence that the ethnolinguistic situation of a country can be effectively manipulated, even if this is thought desirable and ethical; the experience of language planning is that it often fails and only succeeds where it is concordant with the spontaneous sociolinguistic preferences of most of the people. Indeed, it is likely that the economic situation will ultimately determine the linguistic one, since people respond to economic incentives not just in narrow monetary terms, but with broad patterns of often unconscious social-cultural choices that involve shifting their patterns of language use (346).
• I have argued elsewhere that linguistic groups should be seen as systems of generalized exchange, and that linguistic diversity arises precisely where the scope of such exchange is limited. Money is another system of exchange, analogous to language in many ways, and we should not be surprised to find that the scope of one system is related to that of another. GDP will tend to be low where the economy is very local, people are self-sufficient, and transactions are nonmonetized. These are precisely the conditions required for high linguistic diversity. Large linguistic groups arise where there is more intense exchange over longer distances; GDP will be higher under such circumstances because more of the goods produced will enter the monetized market, and they will tend to travel further and to pass through more intermediaries, with the corresponding additions of value (340-1).

neustupnyjiriv 1968Neustupny, Jiri V. 1968. Some general aspects of "language" problems and "language" policy in developing societies. In Language problems of developing nations, 285-294, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

padenjohnn 1968Paden, John N. 1968. Language problems of national integration in Nigeria, the special position of Hausa. In Language problems of developing nations, 199-213, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

pagerobertble 1968Page, Robert B. le. 1968. Problems to be faced in the use of English as the medium of education in four west Indian territories. In Language problems of developing nations, 431-442, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Social sciences - other,

pattanayakdp 1981Pattanayak, D. P. 1981. Multilingualism and mothertongue education. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

paulstonchristinabratt 1987Paulston, Christina Bratt. 1987. Catalan and occitan: Comparative test cases for a theory of language maintenance and shift. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 68:31-62.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Qualitative research,

Research,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Excellent background information on language maintenance and shift.

paulstonchristinabratt 1994Paulston, Christina Bratt. 1994. Linguistic minorities in multilingual settings: Implications for language policies. Studies in bilingualism 4. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

paulstonchristinabratt 1997Paulston, Christina Bratt. 1997. Epilogue: Some concluding thoughts on linguistic human rights. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 127:187-195.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

CBP puts perspective into the potentially emotionally loaded issue of linguistic human rights as formulated in her conclusion: "before we rally around the battle cry of linguistic human rights, we need to work them out" (194). The issue is multi-faceted and complex and very practical. Each situation needs to be studied in its own right.

phillipsonrobert 1992Phillipson, Robert. 1992. Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

phillipsonrobert 1993Phillipson, Robert. 1993. A symposium on linguistic imperialism. World Englishes 12(1):335-373.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

polomeedgar 1968Polomé, Edgar. 1968. The choice of official languages in the democratic republic of the Congo. In Language problems of developing nations, 295-311, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

puetzmartin 1997aPütz, Martin (ed.) 1997a. Language choices: Conditions, constraints, and consequences. Impact: Studies in language and society 1. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

rabenilainarogerbruno 1993Rabenilaina, Roger-Bruno. 1993. L'intégration des différents parlers, signes manifestes de l'unicité de la langue malgache. In Language. A doorway between human cultures, 135-157, edited by Øyvind Dahl. Oslo: Novus Forlag.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Dialectology,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This article is essential for a study of language planning in Madagascar. Because it was written fairly recently, it contains some recent language policies and decisions.

Selected quotes:

• Il s'agit moins d'incorporation de nouveaux éléments à un système que d'établissement d'une interdépendance entre les parties d'un être vivant (135).
• Si l'on veut que la langue malgache soit, (.) le premier outil de/du développement, il faut procéder à l'intégration des parlers par lesquels cette langue se réalise, c'est-à-dire établir l'interdépendance des diférentes variétés régionales qui conditionnent son existence même. Une telle intégration suppose qu'on accepte que chaque région, chaque hameau même, utilise son parler en toute quiétude, sans aucun complexe. Chaque Malgache se sentira alors dans sa peau, conscient de sa propre dignité et respectueux de celle des autres. La communion d'esprits ainsi favorisée sera source de solidarité dans et pour le développement du pays (135).

radloffcarlaf 1991bRadloff, Carla F. 1991b. Sentence repetition testing for studies of community bilingualism. Summer institute of linguistics & the university of Texas at Arlington: Publications in linguistics 104. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Research methodology,

Research,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

An excellent comprehensive guide and description, logically set out, of the SRT method. It is easy to read and does not presume expertise on the part of the reader. Yet, the emphasis is on quality research methods and meticulous planning of a survey. This can be applied because of the clear instructions given.

Selected quotes:

• The test itself is a measuring device that is so designed as to allow, within a reasonable timeframe, the testing of a sufficient sample of people so that the summary of their responses can be construed as a rough index of community characteristics of language proficiency (.) the relative ease of field application does not mean that the test is easy to construct or that the field implementation of the method is simple: good results necessitate meticulous planning and implementation (ix-x).

raharinjanaharysolo 199Raharinjanahary, Solo. 199-. Le statut du malgache et les décisions de politique linguistique à Madagascar.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

Very pertinent information on the language medium chosen in teaching. Arguments on linguistic policies of Madagascar, especially reflecting on the relationship between French and official Malagasy.

raisonjeanpierre 1985Raison, Jean-Pierre. 1985. Madagascar, dans le sud-ouest de l'océan Indien. Hérodote 37-38:211-235.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This article discusses relational aspects between Madagascar and the French language, given that the island was (until 1960) a French colony and, also, because of the proximity of the Francophone islands of the Indian Ocean. Referring to the linguistic unity of the Malagasy language, he makes it clear that this does not imply uniformity, but that the diversity of speech forms used across the island have to be understood against the background of their common Malayo-Polynesian origin.
Interesting reflections on the language of Madagascar. Also, gives the history of the "codification" of Malagasy, English-French conflicts, Merina-Others, Malagasy-French, and some political history.

Selected quotes:

• La définition d'un malgache officiel, à partir des années soixante, n'a pas été l'occasion d'élargir sensiblement les perspectives: ouvre d'intellectuels tananariviens pour l'essentiel, cette nouvelle version ne diffère guère de l'ancienne. La lutte sur la langue est donc inséparable des luttes sur des terrains moins abstraits, et avec elle le débat sur le type de rapport au français (221).

rajaonasimeon 1989Rajaona, Siméon. 1989. La politique linguistique. Leçon inaugurale prononcée par le Professeur Siméon Rajaona à la rentrée universitaire, 1988-1989. Leçon inaugurale, rentrée universitaire 1988-89, 9 février 1989. Antananarivo: University of Antananarivo.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

General historical overview, with examples from Germany, not much about Madagascar.

rakotondrabemodeste 1993Rakotondrabe, Modeste. 1993. Malgachisation de l'enseignement et francophonie. Recherches et Documents 16:28-71.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Social sciences - other,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

rambelomichel 1987Rambelo, Michel. 1987. Réflections sur la situation sociolinguistique à Madagascar. Etudes de Linguistique Appliquée n.s. 65:7-22.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

Michel Rambelo discusses the complexity of the sociolinguistic situation in Madagascar, in particular, due to the existence of a bipolar diglossia: the first pole concerns conflicting relations between French and Malagasy, and the second between Common Malagasy (the Standard form of Malagasy, based on Merina) and regional speech varieties. Important for our study is the following quotations from this article:
Pour des raisons qu'il faudra un jour analyser-le faire ici nous écarterait de notre sujet-, peu nombreuses ont été les études qui ont abordé l'analyse de la situation linguistique à Madagascar en terme de fonctions, de variétés et de conflit.
En général, les recherches se sont le plus souvent limitées à une approche exclusivement linguistique de la question (description de dialectes, études des interférences entre "le" malgache et "le" français, etc.) en mettant l'accent beaucoup plus sur l'unité linguistique que sur les variations, excluant de leurs champs de recherche les phénomènes sociaux et politiques liés au fonctionnement des situations linguistiques (7).

raoelinaandriambololona&ramiandrasoafred 1976Raoelina, Andriambololona, and Fred Ramiandrasoa. 1976. Comment forger une langue scientifique malgache? Bulletin de l'Académie Malgache n.s. 52(1-2):109-115.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Merina,

Central,

raoelinaandriambololona 1976Raoelina, Andriambololona. 1976. Remarques sur la malgachisation des termes scientifiques. Bulletin de l'Académie Malgache n.s. 52(1-2):100-107.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Merina,

Central,

rasoamalalavaoclaire&raharinjanaharysolo 1992Rasoamalalavao, Claire, and Solo Raharinjanahary. 1992. Atlas linguistique et ethnographique de Madagascar. Communication aux journées des 3 au 10 juillet 1992, université de Toliara.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Anthropology and ethnology,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This lecture informs about a project to do research towards a linguistic and ethnographic atlas of Madagascar. It explains the stages of research, describes procedures and frames the first area of research. Attached is found the wordlist that would be used.

ravololonirinahajasoa 1985Ravololonirina, Hajasoa. 1985. De l'instrumentalisation des dialectes oraux. Omaly sy Anio (Hier et Aujourd'hui) 21-22:115-129.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Dialectology,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

History,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Bara,

Southern,

Merina,

Central,

Tsimihety,

Northern,

Very intelligent article, worthy of the best in sociolinguistics!
This is a key article for our study of Malagasy linguistics, in that it confirms many of the sensitive conclusions we have come to through field studies and other readings. It is also one of the most "sociolinguistically inclined" I have found on the Malagasy linguistic situation. The author gives a short overview of the history of Malagasy, with particular reference to the standardisation of Merina as the politically dominant dialect. He discusses certain prejudices concerning Malagasy dialects, some of which found continuation in the unifying nature of the structural description of Malagasy, which proclaims a far-fetched unity (=similarity), denying the reality of variation and difference.
We have found that the idea of dialect similarity in Madagascar has been ideologised and popularised to such an extent that it is difficult to convince people of the need for studying this assumption.
This study is a great encouragement in confirming the need.

Selected quotes:

• Il est certain que les dialectes malgaches présentent d'importantes similitudes soulignées dès la colonisation dans des observations partielles et souvent emiriques, justifiant maintes extrapolations hâtives, comme celle-ci de Julien et Gerbinis:
  -Les diversités dialectales ne reflètent que des nuances et non des différences. Elles tiennent surtout à des changements plus apparents que réels, dans l'émission de certaines syllabes finales, l'alternance de certaines consonnes entre elles. La grammaire et la syntaxe enfin, sont partout, à quelques insignifiantes variantes près, les mêmes.-
  A l'à peu près de ces approximations linguistiques, souvent subordonnées aux normes occidentales, s'est substituée cinquante ans plus tard l'option structuraliste inaugurée en linguistique malgache par S. Rajaona sous les traits du fonctionnalisme. On ne saurait nier l'impulsion donnée par la linguistique structurale à la recherche en linguistique fondamentale. Le fonctionnalisme a orienté deux grandes thèses en dialectologie: 'La syntaxe du Bara' de BR Rabenilaina, et 'le parler Sakalava du Nord-Ouest' de D. Baré-Thomas, pour ne parler que des travaux mis à la disposition du public. La description structurale a permis de mettre en évidence un aspect isomorphe des dialectes de l'île qui présentent "à quelques variantes près" un système phonologique, des normes morphologiques et des normes syntaxiques communs.
  La linguistique structurale est résolument unifiante, mais l'unité qu'elle décrit est l'expression d'un choix opéré dans les faits de langue sur le refus de prendre en considération la variante ou la différence. Forte de ses convictions, elle franchit le pas entre une unité structurale de fait et une unification linguistique de droit (119).

reagantimothyg 1984Reagan, Timothy G. 1984. Language policy, politics, and ideology: The case of South Africa. Issues in Education 2(2):155-164.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

reagantimothyg 1985Reagan, Timothy G. 1985. Language planning in South African education: A conceptual overview. Journal of language teaching 19(3):71-95.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Reagan gives a description of what language planning is and tells some interesting examples from history. He describes the history of language planning in South Africa. He shows up some myths regarding the South African situation. His paper contributes to an academic understanding of the situation in South Africa.

renaudpatrick 1987Renaud, Patrick. 1987. Politogenèse et politique linguistique: Le cas du Cameroun. Etudes de Linguistique Appliquée n.s. 65:23-35.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

This article is introduced by a short overview of the linguistic situation in Cameroon since independence (twenty-five years) until 1987. French and English were made official languages, while at least 239 indigenous languages are spoken there. Only 59 of those have a literary history and they all belong to three of the four linguistic families of Africa: Afro-asiatic, Congo-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan. Cameroon, as a country, became united in 1961 from two colonies - French and British - and has never allowed local languages and vernaculars to enter into the arena of expressing feelings of national belonging. This article reports on the status of all languages in Cameroon and mentions the vernacularisation of French.

rigsbybruce 1987Rigsby, Bruce. 1987. Indigenous language shift and maintenance in fourth world settings. Multilingua 6(4):359-378.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

In Fourth World settings, indigenous language loss is often accompanied by shift to the mainstream national language. This is the current situation among the Gitksans, an indigenous people of British Colombia. This article ends with some discussion of theory and method in studies of language shift and maintenance.

robinsonclintondw&varleyfiona 1998Robinson, Clinton D. W., and Fiona Varley. 1998. Language diversity and accountability in the south: Perspectives and dilemmas. Journal of Sociolinguistics 2(2):189-204.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

robinsonclintondw 1997Robinson, Clinton D. W. 1997. Developing or destroying languages? What does intervention do to linguistic vitality? Notes on Sociolinguistics 2(3):109-126.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Language ecology,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

rubinjoan&jernuddbjoernh 1971Rubin, Joan, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. 1971. Introduction: Language planning as an element of modernization. In Can language be planned?, xiii-xxiv, edited by Joan Rubin, and Bjørn H. Jernudd. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

All references are from the 1960's, which does not invalidate what is being said, but just raises the need to establish what has been done in the thirty to forty years since then and emphasises the historical value of the papers in this volume-language planning and nationalism have much in common.

Selected quotes:

• Language planning is 'deliberate' language change; that is, changes in the systems of language code or speaking or both that are planned by organisations that are established for such purposes or given a mandate to fulfill such purposes (xvi).
• Strong government concern with language, expressed by creating a national language-planning agency that has wide-ranging responsibilities, characterizes primarily the developing and new nations. Such a "policy approach" to language and communications development contrasts with the "cultivation approach" of many Western nations, where language problems are being solved through a variety of public and private institutions (.) rather than in a simple administrative framework (.) in African and Asian countries that have newly achieved nationhood, language planning is often considered as just one more task in the development plans of their countries (xiv).

rubinjoan&jernuddbjoernh 1971Rubin, Joan, and Bjørn H. Jernudd (eds.) 1971. Can language be planned? Sociolinguistic theory and practice for developing nations. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

rubinjoan&shuyrogerw 1973Rubin, Joan, and Roger W. Shuy. 1973. Language planning: Current issues and research. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

rustowdankwart 1968Rustow, Dankwart. 1968. Language, modernization and nationhood. In Language problems of developing nations, 87-105, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

salzmannzdenek 1980Salzmann, Zdenek. 1980. Language standardisation in a bilingual state: The case of Czech and Slovak, two closely cognate languages. Language Problems and Language Planning 4(1):38-54.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Qualitative research,

Research,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Czechoslovakia was a bilingual country, with a "passive" bilingualism. Slovak has been developed to a standard form in the face of the stronger Czech linguistic identity. Salzman gives a historic overview of the development of the languages. The establishment of Slovak as a national language next to Czech has been a nationalistic problem, not so much a linguistic necessity.

schmidtbernd 1988Schmidt, Bernd. 1988. Wandel sprachlich-kommunikativer Verhältnisse in der DR Madagascar und Sprachwandel Im Malagasy. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 41(1):324-333.

language(s):

German

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This article takes a look at language change in Madagascar since 1960, as well as at language attitudes vis-à-vis French and Malagasy.

schmidtbernd 1992Schmidt, Bernd. 1992. Pour une histoire de la langue malgache. In Le scribe et la grande maison. Etudes Océan Indien 15, 105-112, edited by Pierre Vérin. Paris: Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This article summarises the research problem and other aspects, such as methods used and results obtained for a doctoral thesis submitted by Bernd Schmidt to the University of Leipzig in 1990 (Entitled Abrégé de l'histoire contemporaine de la langue malgache de 1960 à nos jours-Contribution à l'étude de la politique linguistique et du changement linguistique). He draws parallels with other states in the region of Madagascar and Africa where certain similar post-colonial trends existed, in that one after the other became disillusioned with their Stalinist-socialist orientation for overcoming underdevelopment and poverty. He also points out the role that linguistics played in reshaping politics and social development.

schmidtbernd 1997Schmidt, Bernd. 1997. Madagaskar. Zur Geschichte seiner Sprache und Kultur. Sprache & Kultur. Aachen: Shaker Verlag.

language(s):

German

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

shonerdhenryg 1990Shonerd, Henry G. 1990. Domesticating the barbaroustongue: Language policy for the Navajo in historical perspective. Language Problems and Language Planning 14(3):193-208.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Largest tribe of Indians in the USA - between 150,000 and 200,000. "Navajo" is a Spanish term. The native term is "Diné." This article describes their repression, first under the Spaniards (beginning 1600's) and later (mid-1800's) by the U.S. Excellent article for understanding the effects of language policies.

smalleywilliama 1994Smalley, William A. 1994. Linguistic diversity and national unity: Language ecology in Thailand. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Anthropology and ethnology,

srivastavarn 1989Srivastava, R. N. 1989. Perspectives on language shift in multilingual settings. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 75:9-26.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Very theoretical. He applies Schermerhorn's categorization to Indian contexts of mother tongue-shift.

turcottedenis 1981aTurcotte, Denis. 1981a. La planification linguistique à Madagascar: Réaménager les rapports entre les langues française et malgache. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 32:5-25.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This exposé was taken from Turcotte's doctoral thesis, "Etude comparative de la politique linguistique en Côte d'Ivoire et à Madagascar." Turcotte discusses here the repercussions of the revolution of 1972 had on linguistic policies. He discusses the problem of a hypothetic common Malagasy, a unification of all dialects. This article gives a good overview of what the linguistic situation was like in 1978.

Selected quotes:

• (.) il semble généralement admis qu'une des causes principales des échecs accumulés en matière d'alphabétisation jusqu'en 1968 résidait dans le fait qu'on avait utilisé exclusivement le malgache officiel au détriment des dialectes locaux (17).

turcottedenis 1981bTurcotte, Denis. 1981b. La politique linguistique en Afrique francophone. Une étude comparative de la côte d'ivoire et de Madagascar. Travaux du centre international de recherche sur le bilinguisme / publications of the international center for research on bilingualism A-17. Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval.

language(s):

French

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Malagasy language,

Sociolinguistics,

Madagascar,

Indian Ocean region,

Austronesian,

Malagasy ethnie(s):

Malagasy,

This study on the linguistic policies of Ivory Coast and Madagascar provides a good basis for understanding the linguistic situation in the two countries and especially for Madagascar, which interests us most, at present. Turcotte covers the linguistic situation in Madagascar especially during the 1970's, where some important decisions were made, resulting among other things in the decline of levels of instruction two decades later. In order to understand the present situation, it is essential to grasp the origins and the evolution of it. He deals with linguistic realities in teaching, information media, public service, literacy, the armed forces, culture, the occupational milieu, and others. He also explains the historical roots of the linguistic situation.

unesco 1953UNESCO. 1953. The use of vernacular languages in education. Monographs on Fundamental Education. Paris: UNESCO.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

unesco 1968UNESCO. 1968. The use of vernacular languages in education: The report of the UNESCO meeting of specialists, 1951. In Readings in the sociology of language, 688-716, edited by Joshua A. Fishman. The Hague: Mouton & Co.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Social sciences - other,

valdmanalbert 1968Valdman, Albert. 1968. Language standardization in a diglossia situation: Haiti. In Language problems of developing nations, 313-326, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

villacortawilfridov 1991Villacorta, Wilfrido V. 1991. The politics of language in the third world: Towards theory building. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 88:33-44.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

"The national language issue is very much entwined in the politics of developing countries" (33). This article offers "some theoretical propositions on the political foundations and ramifications of language development in the Third World" (33). "Language is an element of political power and plays a crucial part in political development" (33). Then a case study is given - the Philippines - where he tests the validity of the theoretical propositions (This case study has several points in common with the Malagasy experience of language planning).

Selected quotes:

• In developing the theory of politics and language in the Third World, it is necessary to test the propositions offered in this paper against the actual experience of various developing countries (42).

walkerrolandw 1991Walker, Roland W. 1991. Measuring language attitudes and language use. Notes on Literature in Use and Language Programs 28:12-18.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Research,

weinsteinbrian 1980Weinstein, Brian. 1980. Language planning in francophone Africa. Language Problems and Language Planning 4(1):55-77.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

First, the author states that francophone Africa is a good area to study language planning and then he continues to expand on the language planning process, with examples. He discusses further examples in terms of his eleven-point system for language planning, pointing out organisations involved in language planning, instances of political bias and of ethnic conflict. Unfortunately, this article dates a bit already.

whiteleywh 1968Whiteley, W. H. 1968. Ideal and reality in national language policy: A case study from Tanzania. In Language problems of developing nations, 327-344, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Qualitative research,

Research,

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

willemynsroland 1988Willemyns, Roland. 1988. Language planning as an initiator of linguistic change. In Synchronic and diachronic approaches to linguistic variation and change. Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics 1988, 349-357, edited by Thomas J. Walsh. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Diachronic linguistics,

History,

wurmstephena 1968Wurm, Stephen A. 1968. Papua-new Guinea nationhood: The problem of a national language. In Language problems of developing nations, 345-363, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Applied linguistics,

youngrusselll 1988Young, Russell L. 1988. Language maintenance and language shift. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9(4):323-338.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

In this article, the author looks at the maintenance of Hakka, Southern Min, and Japanese in Taiwan, as opposed to language shift towards Mandarin. Interesting survey method used.

zimapetr 1968Zima, Petr. 1968. Hausa in west Africa: Remarks on contemporary role and functions. In Language problems of developing nations, 365-377, edited by Joshua A. Fishman, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, and Charles A. Ferguson. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

language(s):

English

topic(s):

Language planning,

Linguistics,

Sociolinguistics,